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References
[1] NHS. Antibiotics: Uses. 2019. Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/antibiotics/uses/ [Accessed 9 November 2021]
[2] Knight M, Chiocchia V, Partlett C et al. Prophylactic antibiotics in the prevention of infection after operative vaginal delivery (ANODE): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2019; 393: 2395–2403
[3] The World Bank. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR). 2021. Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/health/brief/antimicrobial-resistance-amr[Accessed 9 November 2021]
[4] WHO. No time to wait: securing the future from drug-resistant infections. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/documents/no-time-to-wait-securing-the-future-from-drug-resistant-infections-en.pdf?sfvrsn=5b424d7_6[Accessed 9 November 2021]
[5] IFPMA. Global Principles on Incentivizing Antibiotic R&D. Available from: https://www.ifpma.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/IFPMA-Global-Principles-on-Incentivizing-Antibiotic-RD.pdf [Accessed 18 November 2021]
[6] Wellcome. Why is it so hard to develop new antibiotics? 2020. Available from: https://wellcome.org/news/why-is-it-so-hard-develop-new-antibiotics [Accessed 9 November 2021]
[7] Munita JM, Arias CA. Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Microbiol Spectr. 2016; 4(2). doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.VMBF-0016-2015.
[8] Allen RJ, Waclaw B. Bacterial growth: a statistical physicist's guide. Rep Prog Phys. 2019; 82(1): 016601. doi: 10.1088/1361-6633/aae546.
[9] Payne David J., Miller Linda Federici, Findlay David, Anderson James and Marks Lynn 2015Time for a change: addressing R&D and commercialization challenges for antibacterials. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B3702014008620140086 http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0086
[10] Nature Outlook. Why big pharma has abandoned antibiotics. 2020. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02884-3 [Accessed 10 November 2021]
[11] Colgan R, Williams M. Diagnosis and treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis. Am Fam Physician. 2011; 84(7): 771–776.
[12] Stapleton AE, Wagenlehner FME, Mulgirigama A, Twynholm M. Escherichia coli resistance to fluoroquinolones in community-acquired uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women: a systematic review. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020; 64(10): e00862-20. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00862-20.
[13] Lee DS, Lee SJ, Choe HS. Community-acquired urinary tract infection by Escherichia coli in the era of antibiotic resistance. Biomed Res Int. 2018; 2018: 7656752. doi: 10.1155/2018/7656752.
[14] WHO. Antimicrobial resistance: Key facts. 2020. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance [Accessed 1 October 2021]
[15] GSK. 300 years of GSK - three centuries of innovation. Available from: https://www.gsk.com/media/4573/300yrs-of-gsk.pdf [Accessed 11 November 2021]
[16] Vaccine Europe. The role of vaccination in reducing antimicrobial resistance (AMR). 2013. Available from: https://www.vaccineseurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/AMR-and-Vaccines-June-2013.pdf [Accessed 9 November 2021]
[17] Bloom, D.E. et al. Antimicrobial resistance and the role of vaccines, PNAS, December 18, 2018 115 (51) 12868-12871. [Accessed 16 November 2021]
History of antibiotics
Pre-antibiotics
Ancient cultures used plants, moulds and soil to treat bacterial infections. Tetracycline – a natural chemical compound later discovered and patented as an oral antibiotic in 1948 – has been found in human skeletal remains in Egypt and the Sudan that are around 1,500 years old. In ancient Greece, Egypt, and China, mouldy bread was pressed onto wounds to prevent infection.
Now scientists know that the active chemicals and metabolites present in early treatments meant that they were occasionally effective. For example, the moulds on bread produced antimicrobial substances.
In ancient Greece, Egypt, and China, mouldy bread was pressed onto wounds to prevent infection.
Now scientists know that the active chemicals and metabolites present in early treatments meant that they were occasionally effective. For example, the moulds on bread produced antimicrobial substances.
Miasma theory
Miasma theory asserted that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia, and the Black Death were caused by a noxious form of “bad air” and emanated from rotting organic matter known as miasma. This poisonous vapour was contaminated with these decomposed particles and identifiable by its foul odour. Originally advanced by Hippocrates in the fourth century BC, it argued that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, bad air, and poor hygiene. It is no longer an accepted scientific theory.
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Germ Theory
this card is expandable
Germ theory expanded
Germ theory was expanded by Slovenian physician Marcus von Plenciz. Miasma theory remained the dominant school of medical thought in Europe well into the 19th century.
Smallpox vaccine discovered
British physician Edward Jenner demonstrated that an infection with the relatively mild cowpox virus conferred immunity against the deadly smallpox virus, which led to the creation of a smallpox vaccine.
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Smallpox vaccinations common
Smallpox vaccinations became commonplace in Europe, though doctors were unaware of how it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases.
1800s card 2 here
Hep B caregiver and advocate
